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Chapter-Five-Syntax-(I)-----Syntactic-Relations
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Chapter Five Syntax (I) --- Syntactic Relations
0. Introduction
Chapter 4 deals with the smallest meaningful unit at the grammatical level --- morpheme. Chapters 5, 6, 7 are about syntax, which is concerned with the largest meaningful unit at the grammatical level --- sentence.
Two ways to study sentences: In syntax, sentences can be studied in two different ways: i. The static study（静态研究）of sentences means that we describe the structures of sentences to illustrate the parts of a sentence and relationships among them.
ii. The dynamic study（动态研究）of sentences means that we examine how sentences are generated by syntactic rules.
Two theoretical bases:
i. The static study follows the theory of structural linguistics（结构语言学). ii. The dynamic study follows the theory of Transformational-Generative Grammar (TG grammar) (转换生成语法).
To make a structural description of sentences, we shall describe various kinds of relations between words and phrases of sentences. There are three kinds of relations between them.
1. Sequential (syntagmatic) relations（顺序／横向关系）
i. Definition: In syntax, sequential or syntagmatic relation refers to the linear ordering of the words and the phrases within a sentence.
ii. Rearrangement of the words of a sentence yields either an ungrammatical sentence or a different sentence.
2. Substitutional (paradigmatic) relations（替换／纵向关系）
i. Definition: substitutional or paradigmatic relation is a kind of relation between linguistic forms in a sentence and linguistic forms outside the sentence. That is to say, if the words or phrases in a sentence can be replaced by words and phrases outside the sentence and the resulting sentence is still grammatical, then we say the replacing forms and replaced forms have paradigmatic relations.
ii. Syntactic category （句法范畴）
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A. Definition: The linguistic forms that have paradigmatic relations belong to the same syntactic category.
B. Classification: The syntactic categories can be further divided into two groups: lexical category and nonlexical category.
D. Attention: A phrase often, but not always contains more than one word. Sometimes, it may be a single word.
3. Hierarchical relations（等级关系）
i. Definition: Hierarchical relation shows us the inner layering of sentences.
ii. What means can we use to reveal the hierarchical structure of a sentence? IC analysis.
例如
iii. Three levels or hierarchies: sentence-level, phrases-level, word-level
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iv. Three terms: ultimate constituents, immediate constituents, constituents v. Structural ambiguity（结构歧义）：
The same phrase or sentence may have two or more interpretations depending on the hierarchical arrangement of its constituents. Such a case is called structural ambiguity 结构歧义.例如： 参见课本120页例（6）、（7）
4. Identifying syntactic categories 鉴别句法范畴
4.0 How can we decide to which syntactic category a certain linguistic form belongs? Answer: As has been said before, the linguistic forms that have substitutional relations belong to the same syntactic category. Thus, if we can label the linguistic forms with appropriate syntactic categories, we then can decide whether they have substitutional relations or not. Then how can we decide to which syntactic category a certain linguistic form belongs? Generally speaking, we may determine it according to morphological 词法特征 and distributional 分布特征 features shared by linguistic forms that belong to the same class. Here, morphological features refer to inflectional and derivational affixes the linguistic forms in question can take; distributional features refer to the syntactic contexts in which the linguistic forms in question can occur.
4.1 Nouns and noun phrases i. Morphological features
A. inflectional suffixes: ｛z｝1 (plural number marker) and ｛z｝2 (possessive case marker) B. derivational suffixes: -ment, -ion, -hood, -ship, -ness, -ence, -ance ii. Distributional features
The test-frames used to test nouns or noun phrases: A. The _______ was lost. B. There is a ______ in the room. C. He saw _______.
D. ________ was in the garden. 4.2 Verbs and verb phrases i. Morphological features
A. inflectional suffixes: ｛z｝3 (third person singular present tense marker); ｛d｝ (past tense marker); ｛en｝(past participle); and ｛iN｝(present participle)
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B. derivational affixes: de-, be-, dis-, en-, -en, -ify, -ize, -ate ii. Distributional features
The test frames used for verbs and verb phrases: A. Let us __________. B. The boy ________. 4.3 Adjectives i. Morphological features A. inflectional suffixes: -er, -est
B. derivational suffixes: -ish, -ful, -y, -less, -ary, -ous ii. Distributional features
The test frames used for adjectives and adjective phrases: A. The very ________ girl was very ______. B. Horses are ________ animals. 4.4 Adverbs
i. Morphological features A. inflectional suffixes: -er, -est B. derivational suffixes: -ly ii. Distributional features:
With regard to the distribution of the class Adverb and Adverbial phrase, we cannot describe it in terms of a frame as we did for the other categories because they usually do not have a fixed position in a sentence. They may be used to modify adjectives, other adverbs, verbs or sentences.
Hierarchies and Labeled IC analysis
5.1 句子等级结构的四种表示法：1）直接成分分析；2）标记法直接成分分析；3）短语标记法；4）括号标记法。
（1）直接成分分析：
We have studied the means of IC analysis used to analyze the hierarchical structure of sentences. Now let's compare the hierarchical structures of the following sentences.
1) These apples are very sweet. 2) Little Tom runs very fast. 3) His brother stayed at home.
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