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Chapter 1 Introduction What is linguistics? 什么是语言学 [A] The definition of linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language (对语言进行的科学研究) Process of linguistic study: ① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed; ② Hypotheses are formulated; ③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations; ④ A linguistic theory is constructed. [B] The scope of linguistics General linguistics普通语言学: the study of language as a whole从整体研究 1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified) 2.Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning) 3.Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words) 4.Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences) 5.Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction 6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of use Sociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind Applied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning Anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics [C] Some important distinctions in linguistics ① Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 规定性与描写性 ② Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性） The description of a language at some point in time; The description of a language as it changes through time. ③ Speech and writing 言语与文字 Spoken language is primary, not the written ④ Langue and parole 语言和言语 Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological) Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community（指一个话语社团所有成员共有的语言系统） Parole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use（指语言在实际运用中的实现） ⑤ Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用 Proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological) Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（理想的语言使用者关于语言规则方面的知识） Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistics communication.（这种知识在语言交流中的具体实现） What is language? 什么是语言 [A] The definition of language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。) a) System: combined together according to rules （根据规则组合在一起） b) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for（语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系） c) Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages （所有语言的首要媒介都是声音） d) Human: language is human-specific （语言是人类所独有的） [B]Design features (unique properties): the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication （识别特征是指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征） ①Arbitrariness（任意性） There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning. While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.（意义和语音之间没有什么逻辑的联系；虽然是任意性的，但并非完全任意） a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic words （拟声词） b) some compound words （某些复合词） ②Productivity（能产性，创造性） Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (Creativity or open-endedness) ★③Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性） Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)（语言是一个系统，包含两组结构或者两个层面。在较低/基本层面存在着语音结构，其自身没有什么意义；较高层面存在着意义单位；结构的双重性/语言的双层性） ④Displacement（跨时空性，移位性） Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations) ⑤Cultural transition（文化传递性） While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learnt. The above 5 properties may be taken as the core features of human language. Chapter 2 Phonology 音位学 [A] The definition of phonetics（语音学） Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音） Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.（发音语音学） Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.（听觉语音学） Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.（声学语音学） [B] Organs of speech （发音器官） Voiceless:清音 when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Voiced (Voicing): 浊音when the vocal cords声带 are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. All the English vowels元音are typically voiced (voicing). The important cavities: The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 The oral cavity 口腔 The nasal cavity 鼻腔 其他部位：Lips唇1, teeth齿2, teeth ridge (alveolus)齿龈3, hard palate硬腭4, soft palate (velum)软腭5, uvula小舌6, tip of tongue舌尖7, blade of tongue舌面8, back of tongue舌后9, vocal cords声带10 [C] Orthographic representation of speech sounds：Broad and narrow transcriptions （语音的正字法表征：宽式/窄式标音） IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association国际语音协会/国际音标) Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only （代表字母的符号） Narrow transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics （变音符） E.g.: [l]?[li:f]--? a clear [l] (no diacritic) [l]?[bild]--?a dark [l] (~) [l]?[help]--?a dental [l] ( ) 表示送气[p]?[pit]--?an aspirated [ph](h) [p]?[spit]--?an unaspirated [p] (no diacritic) [n]?[?b?tn]?a syllabic nasal [n] (?) [D] Classification of English consonants（英语辅音的分类） In terms of manner of articulation 根据发音方法分 (the manner in which obstruction is created) ①Stops闭塞音: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly [p]/[b], [t]/[d], [k]/[g] ②Fricatives摩擦音: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the month [f]/[v], [s]/[z], [∫]/[з], [θ]/[δ], [h] (approximant) ③Affricates塞擦音: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives [t∫]/[dз] ④Liquids流音: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth [l]?a lateral sound; [r]? retroflex ⑤Glides滑音: [w], [j] (semi-vowels) Liquid + glides + [h]? approximants ⑥Nasals鼻音: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it [m], [n], [η] By place of articulation根据发音部位分 (the place where obstruction is created) ①bilabial双唇音: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions [p]/[b], [w]?(velar) ②labiodentals唇齿音: the lower lip and the upper teeth [f]/[v] ③dental齿音: the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth [θ]/[δ] ④alveolar齿龈音: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge [t]/[d], [s]/[z], [n], [l], [r] ⑤palatal腭音: tongue in the middle of the palate [θ]/[δ], [t∫]/[dз], [j] ⑥velars软腭因: the back of the tongue against the velum [k], [g], [η]