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two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating ____ minimal pairs______.

27. In English there are a number of ___ diphthongs_______, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.

28. _____ Co-articulation_____ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.

29. ____ Phonemes______ is the smallest linguistic unit.

30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the ____ air stream______ coming from the lungs.

21. An ____ initialism______ is pronounced letter by letter, while an ____ acronym__ is pronounced as a word.

22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with ____ vocabulary______.

23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: ____ solid______, ___ hyphenated_______ and ______open____.

24. All words may be said to contain a root ____ morpheme______.

25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to _____close_____ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to ___open_______ class. 26. ____ back-formation______ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.

27. _____ conversion_____ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.

28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the _ morpheme__ level. 29. A word formed by derivation is called a ____ derivative______, and a word formed by compounding is called a _ compound _.

30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: ___ affix__ and __ bound root___.

21. A __ simple___ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.

22. A __ sentence__ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.

23. A __ subject__ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.

24. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called __ predicate_.

25. A __ complex ___ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.

26. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an _ embedded __ clause.

27. Major lexical categories are __open__ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.

28. _ Adjacency__ condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.

29. _ Parameters__ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.

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30. The theory of _ Case_ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.

21. __ Semantics__ can be defined as the study of meaning.

22. The conceptualist view holds that there is no __ direct__ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.

23. _ Reference __ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 24. Words that are close in meaning are called _synonyms__.

25. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called __homophones__.

26. _Relational_ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.

27. _Componential _ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.

28. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called _selectional__ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.

29. A(n) _argument__ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.

30. According to the __naming__ theory of meaning, the words in a lan?guage are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.

21. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech __ community___.

22. Speech _ variety__ refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.

23. From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a _ dialectal_ variety of a language.

24. Language standardization is also called language __ planning__.

25. Social variation gives rise to _ sociolects__ which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational background, etc.

26. _ Stylistic__ variation in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.

27. A regional dialect may gain status and become standardized as the national or _ official__ language of a country.

28. The standard language is a _ superposed_, socially prestigious dialect of language.

29. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or _ vernacular_ languages. 30. A pidgin typically lacks in _ inflectional__ morphemes.

21. The notion of _ context__ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.

22. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an _ utterance _.

23. The meaning of a sentence is _ abstract_, and decontexualized.

24. _ Constatives__ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.

25. _ Performatives_ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.

26. A(n) _ locutionary__ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of

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conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.

27. A(n) _ illocutionary _ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.

28. A(n) _ commissive__ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action. 29. A(n) _ expressive__ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.

30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of _ quantity_, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.

21. The Prague School practiced a special style of _ synchronic__ Linguistics.

22. The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between _ phonetics_ and phonology.

23. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was _ J. R. Firth __.

24. Halliday’s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and the theory behind his Functional Grammar is __ systemic__.

25. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a(n) _ sociologically__ oriented functional linguistic approach.

26. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of _ distribution_.

27. In the history of American linguistics, the period between 1933 and 1950 is also known as _ Bloomfieldian_ Age.

28. __ Descriptivism__ in language theories is characteristic of America.

29. The starting point of Chomsky’s TG grammar is his _ innateness_ hypothesis.

30. Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of three elements, that is a _ hypothesis-maker_, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.

IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)

31. Design feature: It refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.

32. Displacement: It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. 33. Competence: It is an essential part of performance. It is the speaker’s knowledge of his or her language; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. Competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. Moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious. A transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence.

34. Synchronic linguistics: It refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. The time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time.

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31. Sound assimilation : Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.

32. Suprasegmental feature : The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.

33. Complementary distribution : The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution

34. Distinctive features : It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.

31. Blending : It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch) 32. Allomorph : It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.

33. Closed-class word : It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.

34. Morphological rule : It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to form a new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.

31. Syntax : Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences

32. IC analysis : Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.

33. Hierarchical structure : It is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP. 34. Trace theory : After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. E.g. The passive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.

31. Entailment: It is basically a semantic relation (or logical implication), and it can be clarified with the following sentences:

a. Tom divorced Jane. b. Jane was Tom’s wife.

In terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between these two sentences:

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when A is true, B must be also true; when B is false, A must also be false. When B is true, A may be true or false. Therefore we can say A entails B.

32. Proposition: It is the result of the abstraction of sentences, which are descriptions of states of affairs and which some writers see as a basic element of sentence meaning. For example, the two sentences ―Caesar invaded Gaul‖ and ―Gaul was invaded by Caesar‖ hold the same proposition. 33. Componential analysis: It defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components, or semantic features. For example, the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE. Similarly girl may be analyzed into HUMAN, YOUNG and FEMALE.

34. Reference: It is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality.

31. Lingua franca : A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a common speech for social contact among groups of people who speaks different native languages or dialects.

32. Regional dialect : Regional dialect, also social or class dialect, is a speech variety spoken by the members of a particular group or stratum of a speech community

33. Register : Register, also situational dialect, refers to the language variety appropriate for use in particular speech situations on which degrees of formality depends.

34. Sociolinguistics : Defined in its broadest way, sociolinguistics, a subdiscipline of linguistics, is the study of language in relation to society. It is concerned with language variation, language use, the impact of extra-linguistic factors on language use, etc.

31. Conversational implicature : In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevant information from one another. However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.

32. Performative : In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out (= a warning).

33. Locutionary act: A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can

be understood.

34. Q-principle (Horn) : (1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity); (2) Say as much

as you can (given R).

31. FSP : It stands for Functional Sentence Perspective. It is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain

32. Cohesion : The Cohesion shows whether a certain tagmeme is dominating other tagmemes or is dominated by others.

33. LAD : LAD, that is Language Acquisition Device, is posited by Chomsky in the 1960s as a device effectively present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their native language is constructed

34. Case Grammar : It is an approach that stresses the relationship of elements in a

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