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1.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

2.Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.

3.Arbitrariness refers that there is no logical connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for(meaning and sounds). 4.Duality means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 5.Creativity(productivity)means language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.

6.Displacement means language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.

7.Cultural transmission: language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. The details of the linguistic system must be learned by each speaker.

8.Interchangeability: means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.

9.Linguistics is the scientific study of language 10.Descriptive means the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.

Prescriptive means the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language to tell people what they should say and not say.

11.Synchronic共时in which languages are treated as self-contained systems of communication at any particular time在那一刻、时、块的情况（当代、古代）

Diachronic 历时 in which the changes to which languages are subject in the course of time and treated historically.(在过程中都有什么变化、

区别、有大时间变化)2个共时即为历时

12.Langue and parole 找笔记重点。Competence and performance 找笔记重点。

13.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.

14.Consonants： are sounds produced by obstructing the flow of air in the oral cavity。Vowels： are produced when the air stream meets with no obstruction。

15.diacritics：are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.

16.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that governs the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. 17.Articulatory phonetics发音语音学studies of the production of speech sounds.

Acoustic phonetics声学语音学studies of the physical properties of speech sounds

Perceptual phonetics感知听觉 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds

18.Coarticulation协同发音 means when a speech sound changes and becomes more like another sound which follows it on precedes it Anticipatory coarticulation: a sound becomes more like the following sound. Eg: lamb

Perseverative coarticulation: the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound. Eg: map

19.Broad transcription: the transcription with letters, symbols only. Narrow transcription: the transcription with letters,symbols together

with the diacritics.

20.Phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.But a phone does not distinguish meaning.

21.Phoneme is a phonological unit which is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.

22.Allophone means the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. The choice of an allophone is not random, it is rule-governed in different contexts

23.Minimal pair: A minimal pair contains two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning.

24.Allophones of a phoneme always occur in different phonetic environment, so they are said to be in complementary distribution. 25.If the phonetically similar sounds are 2 distinctive phonemes,they are said to form a phonemic contrast.

26.Free variation: When two or more linguistic items occur in the same position without any apparent change of meaning they are in free variation.

27.Assimilation同化现象is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound。

Regressive assimilation: a following sound influencing a preceding sound Progressive assimilation: a preceding sound influences a following sound.

音位变化规则：three aspects： a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process ; a set of situations in which the process applies.

28.Word is a minimum free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.

29.Morpheme语素 is the smallest meaningful unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical词汇的 or grammatical. 30．Morphology形态学studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

31.Endocentric compound: is one in which one constituent is the center and the other is the modifier.

Exocentric compound: is one in which there is on focal element and the whole refers to sth else rather than what either of the constituents denotes

32.Allomorph:any of the different shapes or phonetic forms of a morpheme 33.suppletion: a type of irregularity in which there is a complete change in the shape of a word in its various forms

34.Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures. 35.Grammatical construction can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.

36.Immediate constituents are constituents immediately, or directly, below the level of a construction, even a word which can be further analyzed into morphemes(Bloomfield)

37.IC analysis: the analysis of the a sentence in terms of its immediate constituent-word groups which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituent of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate

constituent are reached.

38.The importance of IC analysis: is that it stressed the function of the intermediate level-the word group-in the analysis of a sentence,seeing a hierarchical structure of the sentence.

39.The advantages of IC analysis： the internal structure of a sentence is demonstrated and ambiguity can be revealed.

40.Endocentric向心性 construction is one whose distribution is functionally 功能相同equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable center or head一个词或一组词是整个结构的核心或中心

41.Exocentric离心性 refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable centre or head inside the group. 42.Recursion:the repeated use of the same rule to create infinite sentences.

43.Deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction.

Surface structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely correspond to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.

44.Text linguistics: a branch of linguistics which studies spoken or written texts.

45.Anaphora: the use of a word or phrase which refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.

46.Semantics is the study of linguistic meaning, the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences.

47.Reference指代means the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for.