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Definition: the words with more than one senses or which can be used to express more meanings 一词多义。 diachronic approach. 历时的角度: growth and development 成长和发展

6.1.1Two approches to Polysemy: primary meaning 基本义----derived meaning 派生义 歧义的两个角度 synchronic approach. 共时的角度: coexistence 共存 central meaning 中心义----sencondary meaning 次要义 (secondary ----sometimes dominant 有时占优势) radiation辐射型: center, every direction like rays;

6.1.2Two Processes of Development: independent; back to central meaning. e.g: neck (多个意思同时并存) 发展的两个过程 concatenation连锁型: move away from first sense by shifts; no connection with original meaning; Later meaning is related to preceding one. eg. : treacle, candidate （剩下一个意思） 6.2 homonymy 同音异义

Definition: words have different meanings but identical sounds or spelling 声音拼写相同意义不同。 Perfect homonyms: identical sounds and spelling 完全同形同音异义词 6.2.1 Types of Homonyms Homographs: identical spelling 同音异义的种类 同形异音异义词 Homophones: identical sound---most common 同音异形异义词

6.2.2 Origins of Homonyms ：changes in sound and spelling; Borrowing; Shortening 同音异义的起源 声音和拼写的变化，借词，缩短 Perfect homonyms: identical sounds and spelling 完全同形同音异义词

6.2.3 Differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemants

Homographs: identical spelling 同音异义词和歧义词的区别

同形异音异义词

Homophones: identical sound---most common

同音异形异义词 11

6.2.4 Rhetoric Features of Homonyms ：create puns for desired effect --- humour, sarcasm, ridicule

同音异义词的修饰特点 为预期的效果制造双关语——幽默，讽刺，嘲笑

6.3 Synonymy 同义词

6.3.1 Definition of Synonyms 同义词定义

Synonyms can be defined as word different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning. 同义词可定义为在读音和拼写上不同但在意义却很相似或完全一样的词。 6.3.2 Types of Synonyms Absolute synonyms 绝对同义词

同义词的类型 Relative synonyms 相对同义词

Borrowing 借词

Dialects and regional English 方言和区域词

同义词的来源

Figurative and euphemistic use of words 比喻词和委婉语

Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 与习语的巧合

1. Difference in denotation 指示义不同 6.3.4 Discrimination of Synonyms

2. Difference in connotation 隐含义不同 同义词的辨别

3. Difference in application 应用不同

6.4 Antonymy 反义词

1. Contradictory terms 矛盾词语

2. Contrary terms 对立词语

6.4.1Types of Antonyms（反义词的类型）

3. Relative terms 关联词语

6.3.3 Sources of Synonyms

6.4.2 Some of the Characteristics of Antonyms

反义词的一些特征

Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition. 反义词在意义对立的基础上分类。

A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.. 多义词可以拥有一个以上反义词 Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 反义词的语义内涵相互区别。To define the meaning 定义词义

Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding To express economically the opposite of a particular thought 简练地表达某一特定思想的对立面 opposite.对立词语是分级的反义词，在程度上区别，因此每个都有它们自己的反义词。 To form antithesis (form antithesis to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together 将对立的思想拼合在一起来形成对偶) To serve stylistic purpose 去达到风格的目的

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6.4.3 The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用

superordinate terms 上位关系 6.5 Hyponymy 上下位关系

subordinate terms 下位关系

Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. 上下义关系涉及语义包容的关系。也就是说，一个更具体的词的意义被包含在另外一个更一般的的词的意义之中。 6.6 Semantic Field 语义场

Definiton: word store is composed around a number of meaning areas. 围绕着一定数量的意义区域构成。 Function: words in each field define one another. 每个语义场中的词语义关联和定义其他的。

7 Changes in Word Meaning 词义的变化

extension 延展

narrowing 缩小

7.1 Types of Changes 变化类型

degradation 降级

elevation 升级 transfer 转移

7.2 Causes of Changes 变化原因 1. Historical reason 历史原因

7.2.1 Extra-linguistic Factors 2. Class reason 阶级原因

语言以外的因素

3. Psychological reason 心理原因

7.2.2 Linguistic Factors 语言因素：shortend phrase; borrowings; competition of native words; analogy （短语，借词，本地词竞争，类推）

8 Meaning & Context 意义和背景

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8.1 Types of Context 背景类型

8.1.1Extra-linguistic Context —— non-linguistic situation, cultural background

非语言背景 ------非语言状况，文化背景

1. Lexical context 词法背景

8.1.2 Linguistic Context

2. Grammatical context 句法背景

Definition 定义 Explanation 解释 Example 例子 Synonymy 同义 Antonymy 反义

Hyponymy 上下位关系 Relevant details 相关的细节 Word structure 词语结构

8.2 The Role of Context 背景的功能

8.2.1 Elimination of Ambiguity 歧义的消除 8.2.2 Indication of Referents 指代物的说明 8.2.3 Provision of Clues for Inferring Word-meaning 推导词义的线索供应

9 English Idioms 英语习语

Idiom—idioms consist of set phrases and short sentences， which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas. Strictly speaking， idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meanings of individual elements. In a broad sense，idioms may include colloquialisms， catchphrases， slang expressions，proverbs，etc.

习语由固定的短语和短句组成，它们是所涉及的语言所独有的，而且带有本族的文化和观念。严格来讲，习语是不能从其个体成分的文字意思立即理解其意义的， 从广义上讲，习语可以包括口语词、时髦词、俚语、谚语等。 9.1 Characteristics of Idioms 习语的特点 9.1.1 Semantic Unity语义的整体性

9.1.2 Structural Stability 结构稳定性

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. The constituents of idioms cannot be replaced. The structure is fixed. 首先，习语的组成部分成分不可替换。 The word order cannot be inverted or changed.习语的语序不能倒装或改变。

The constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to，not even an article. 习语的组成成分不能删除或增加。 Many idioms are grammatically unanalysable.很多习语在语法上是不可分析的。

the idomaticity of idioms is gradable and may best be thought in terms of scale.习语的习语性是分等级的，而且可能 最好从等级上来研究。

The fixity of idioms depends on the idiomaticity. The more idiomatic the idioms，the more fixed the structure.习语的 稳定性在于其习语性程度。

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Idioms nominal in nature （名词性习语）

9.2 Classification of Idioms Idioms adjective in nature（形容词性习语）

Idioms verbal in nature（动词性习语）

Phrasal verbs 短语动词

Idioms adverbial in nature （副词性习语） Verb phrases 动词短语

Sentence Idioms（句式习语）

The standard of Classification of idioms is The criterion of ‘grammatical function‘. 习语的分类标准是语法功能的标准

Colloquialisms Stylistic Features 语体色彩

口语词

Slang 俚语 Literary expressions 书面表达式 Phonetic manipulation 语音运用 Alliteration 头韵（法）

Rhetorical features 修辞特征

Rhyme 韵脚 Reiteration 重复（同义的重复）

Lexical manipulation 词汇运用 Repetition 重复 Juxtaposition 9.3 Use of Idioms 习语的使用

（of antonyms）邻接（反义词）

Simile 明喻 Metaphor「n.暗语，隐喻」

Figures of speech 修辞手法 Metonymy「n.借代」 Synecdoche「n.借代，提喻法」

Personification （拟人）

Replacement 替换

Euphemism （委婉语）

Addition or deletion 增词或减词

Variation of idioms 习语的变化 Position-shifting 移位

Shorting 缩略法

Dismembering 肢解

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