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第一章 绪论 the structure of English sentence

1.0 introduction -- The grammar unites hierarchy

Higher

A Text consists of one or more sentences. A Sentence consists of one or more clauses A Clause consists of one or more phrases A Phrase consists of one or more words A Words consists of one or more Morpheme Lower A Morpheme 定义1 1.1 Morphemes 词素 词素是语言中最小的不可再分的单位，词素是抽象的，他通过词素式morph表现出来，有变体形式，称为词素变体allomorph。可单独使用的词素称为自由词素 free morpheme, 只能依附其他词素使用的称为粘附词素bound morpheme. 一般来说，自由词素表现意义，粘附词素只表现附加意义或者语法上的特征。 Morphemes词素 The minimal units of grammatical analysis, also the smallest meaningful unit of language.Can’t be further divided into smaller segments. e.g. “un””able””mention””s” Morph 形素 词素的语音或者拼写法的体现。 The concrete realization of a Morpheme. Allomorph词素变体 A phonetically, lexically or grammatically conditioned member of a set of morphs representing a particular morpheme. e.g. “knife””knives” Free Morpheme 自由词素 A morpheme that can occur in isolation. Bound Morpheme 粘附词素 A morpheme that can only occur in conjunction with at least one other morpheme. e.g. “s in boys””-ed in worked””-ing in doing” e.g. “boy””girl””go””do””mention””self”

1.2 Words 1.2.1 Words Class

Open Class开放性 词多，旧词消亡新词产生。 Nouns名词;Verb动词;Adjective形容词;Adverb副词 Closed Class关闭性 词数目少相对稳定 Determiner限定词;Pronouns代词;Preposition介词;Conjunction连词; Auxiliary助动词; Numerals数词（不可添加新形式但无限） Interjections感叹词 Marginal Class 边缘 1.2.2 word formation 构词法

a. Affixation 词缀法 List具体见书9-10页

英语分前缀后缀和中缀，前缀加在词根之前，改变词义不改变词类。后缀加在词根之后，改变词类不改变词义。 Root A root is that part of a word that remains when all affixes have been removed. E.g. “force” in enforce; “touch” in untouchable Stem A stem has to do with inflection features and is the part that remains when all inflection affixes (曲折词缀） have been removed. e.g. “chair” in chairs, “work” in worked, “untouchable” in untouchables Base A base is any form to which any affixes of any kind can be added. e.g. “touch” in touchable, “touchable” in untouchable, “untouchable” in untouchables Prefix Attached before a base,the function tends to be semantically oriented, it adds new meaning to a base Suffixes Attached after a base, the function tends to be class-changing. b. Composition 复合法

两个或者两个以上的独立词构成一个复合词。

E.g.: manservant, snowfall, deadline, spotlight, world-famous, before-tax, whenever, whereas…

c. Convention 转化法

某个单词未经添加此罪就由一个词类转化为另一个词类。 Verbs to nouns: love, answer, doubt.

Adj. to verbs: daily(=daily newspaper), final(=final exam)

d. Blending 拼缀法

把两个词经行裁剪，掐头去尾，然后把这两个不完整的部分拼成一个词，在某些情况下只裁剪两个词中的一个词，把一个不完整的词和一个完整的词拼成另一个词。 P+P Motel (Motor + Hotel) Smog (Smoke + Fog) Brunch (Breakfast + Lunch) W+P newscast (News + Broadcast) Workfare (Work + Welfare) P+W Medicaid (Medical + Aid) Medicare (Medical + Care)

e. Back-formation 逆生法

英语中有很多-or,-er结尾的名词是由动词派生而来，但也不乏通过去掉这些名词词尾派生出来的动词。 e.g. Housekeep –Housekeeper Babysit – Babysitter

定义 f. Shortening 缩略法

把较长的多音节单词裁剪成较短的单音节单词。

e.g.: Ad (Advertisement) Phone( Telephone) Lab(Laboratory)

g. Acronyms 首字母省略法

两种发音方式，按字母发音或者按拼音方法读音。 e.g.: UFO, FBI, VIP

1.3 Phrases

词组是按一定的语法规则，围绕一个中心词结合起来的一组词，中心词所属的词类决定词组类别及组合方式。

A phrase consists of one or more that one word, usually a string of words built up around a head word.

类别： Noun Phrase, Verb Phrase, Adjective Phrase, Adverb Phrase, Prepositional Phrase

1.3.1 The Noun Phrase 名词词组

名词词组以名词为中心词，并可能带有一个或几个修饰语。（可以是词，词组，分句，可前置后置） My neighbor is a noisy person. (determiner + adj + headword)

1.3.2 The Verb Phase 动词词组

以动词为中心，并可能带有助动词。没有助动词的叫简单动词词组，有助动词的叫复杂动词词组。 The simple Verb Phrase and Complex Verb Phrase She bought a book yesterday. (Simple) I have never seen him before. (Complex)

根据其结构和功能又可分为限定动词词组(finite verb phrase)和非限定动词词组(non-finite verb phrase). 第一个动词为限定动词的词组叫做限定动词词组，主要特征是与主语保持数的一致并有时的标志。 第一个动词为非限定动词的词组叫做非限定动词词组，即动词不定式，-ing分词，-ed分词 The finite Verb Phrase and The non-finite Verb Phrase

The head word or the first element of a finite verb phrase is a finite verb, which bears the tense marker and sometimes keep in concord with the subject. EX: She likes coffee.

The non-finite Verb Phrase is a phrase whose first element is a non-finite verb free of the constraints.Including -ing & -ed participle. EX: I didn't expect you to be here.

1.3.3 The Adjective Phrase 形容词词组

以形容词为中心词，并可能带有前置或后置修饰语，前置语一般是副词，后置除福此外可以是词组或者分句。

I didn’t find the language difficult to learn. (head word + infinitive)

1.3.4 The Adverb Phrase 副词词组

副词词组以副词为中心词，组合方式是修饰语加副词，有时中心词之后还可以带有后置修饰语或补足成分。 He doesn’t work very hard indeed. (adv + headword + adv)