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一、Term Definition:
Language: is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
Phonetics: the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.
Semantics: the study of meaning
Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
Syntax: in linguistics, what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world.
Morphology: the study of the way in which these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study
Synonym: words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.
Reference: what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
Sense: concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.
Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.
Dialect: a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country (regional dialect), or by people belonging to a particular social class (social dialect or sociolect), which is different in some words, grammar, and/or pronunciation from other forms of the same language.
Accent: a particular way of speaking which tells the listener something about the speaker's background.
Conversational maxim: an unwritten rule about conversation which people know and which influences the form of conversational exchanges.
Context: it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.
Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.
Locutionary act: the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning. It is the act performed in saying something.
Hyponymy: refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
Speech community: the social group that is singled out for any special study.
Transcription: the use of symbols to show sounds or sound sequences in written form.
Bound morpheme: a morpheme that must be attached to another one is called bound morpheme. Minimal Pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same position in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.
Stress: the pronunciation of a word or syllable with more force than the surrounding words or syllables.
Compounding: a word formation process in which words are formed by putting two or more
words together.
Affixation: is the process of forming words by adding derivational affixes to stems.
Allophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.
Complementary Distribution: Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.
Conversion: refers to the derivational process whereby an item comes to belong to a new word class without the addition of suffix.
Deep Structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties Surface Structure: corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations.
Saussure: the distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the 20 century.
Vowel: The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.
Consonant: The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants. Linguistics: the scientific study of language.
General Linguistics: the study of language as a whole.
Inflectional Affix: The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.
Derivational Affix: The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.
Open Class: in English, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs which are the content words of a language, which are sometimes called open class words.
Closed Class: conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, which are in small number and stable since few new words are added, therefore such words have been referred to as closed class words.
Sociolinguistics: the study of all the social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.
Speech Variety: refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.
Pidgin: a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.
Creole: when a pidgin become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquitted by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.
二、单项选择题：
1、语音学中元音和辅音的发音特征和分类。
元音分类: vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest.
辅音分类: By place of articulation and by manner of articulation
2、音位学中的音素、音位、音位变体、音位对立、互补分布和最小对立体、音位规则、超音段特征：
Phone: is a phonetic unit or segment.
Phoneme: a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.
Allophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.
Phonemic contrast: it can be easily observed that phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.
Complementary distribution: Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.
Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 音位规则: (1) sequential rules (2) assimilation rule (3) deletion rule
Suprasegmental feature: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features.
3、语言的特征、乔姆斯基的转换生成语法、深层结构和表层结构、能力和行为的概念等： 语言特征: (1)arbitrariness (2)productivity (3)duality (4)displacement (5)cultural transmission Chomsky transformation: a special step of rule that can move an element from one position to another.
Deep Structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties Surface Structure: corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations.
4、形态学中的构词法及派生词素等、如词根、词干和基词等。 构词法:
Derivation: a process of word formation in which new words are created by added affixes to root. Root: the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. Stem: the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. 基词:
四、简短回答问题
1、Phonetics and phonology: Phonetics: description of all speech sounds and their find differences. Phonology: description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.
2、Broad transcription and narrow transcription: Broad transcription: The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. Narrow transcription: The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.
3、Deep structure and surface structure: D-structure: A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement. S-structure: A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.
4、Competence and performance: Chomsky defined competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules. 5、Speech and writing: Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are:
1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.
6、Descriptive and the prescriptive approaches in linguistic studies: If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.
7、Langue and parole: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
8、Semantics and pragmatics: The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use. 9、Sense and reference: Sense: It’s concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It’s the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized. Reference: It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
10、Sentence meaning and utterance meaning: Sentence meaning: It refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept, the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. Utterance meaning: It refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes and utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered.
11、Macro-sociolinguistics and micro-sociolinguistics: Macro-linguistics studies what societies do with their languages, that is, attitudes and attachments that account for the functional distribution of speech forms in society, language shift, maintenance, and replacement, the delimitation and interaction of speech communities. Micro sociolinguistics investigates how social structure influences the way people talk and how language varieties and patterns of use correlate with social attributes such as class, sex, and age.