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onomatopoeic words. (P94倒数第二行) “The ice was here, the ice was there, The ice was all around;
It cracked and growled, and roared and howled, Like noises in a swound!‖
5.What is meant by grammatical meaning?（P96~97） Grammatical meaning(词法意义) consists of word-class（词类） and inflectional paradigm（词形变化）。 (1）
It describes the word‘s lexical meaning and also gives what is traditionally known as the part of speech of the word, which modern linguists call the word-class.
(2）
The set of grammatical forms of a word is called its paradigm.
On the other hand the grammatical meaning is the same in identical sets of individual forms of different words.
6. What is the different between grammatical meaning and lexical meaning? (P97第3段)
First, the lexical meaning(词汇意义) of a word is the same in all forms of one and the same word while the grammatical meaning （语法意义）varies from ,one word-form to another.
Second, every word has a different lexical meaning whereas the grammatical meaning is the same in the identical sets of individual forms of different words.
7．Why should we give primary importance to conceptual/denotative meaning（概念/外延意义） of words ?(P97第4段)
Denotative meaning is the central factor in linguistic communication.
One of the functions of words is to designate or describe something, such as an object, a property or a process. Users of a language cannot talk about their knowledge of a physical object or a natural phenomenon, unless this knowledge is expressed in words which have the same meaning for all speakers of a given community. This is the denotative meaning of a word.
Denotative meaning is used when the emphasis is on the relationship between language, on the one hand, and the things, events, or processes, which are external to the speaker and his language, on the other.
The denotative meaning of a word is its definition given in a dictionary. It‘s that aspect of lexical meaning which makes communication possible.
8. Give three to five words which have connotations（内涵） varying from one speech community to another speech community, or from era to era. The answer is from page98
(1) mother: The denotative meaning of the word mother is ―female parent‖, but it generally connotes love, care, tenderness. (2) January: The word January denotes ―the first month of the year‖, but it connotes cold weather, a biting north wind, snow, central heating, skating or even the New Year.
(3) road: To the Eskimos in Greenland , Alaska and North Canada, who travel by sledge, road often connotes snow-covered ground, while to those living in big cities, road connotes smooth and peaceful avenues with trees alongside, or streets crowded with people and heavy traffic.
(4)Uncle Sam: Uncle Sam is a term of favourable connotation to most American in the United States, but in some countries the opposite is true, and an allusion to Uncle Sam would be associated with feelings of anger and hatred towards the American government.
12. Explain the following terms with examples:
The answer is from page101 a) semantic features (语义特征)
The linguistic meaning of a word is the set of abstracted characteristics necessary to distinguish the category which the word names from all other categories. These abstracted characteristics（抽象特征） are known as semantic features. Semantic features are used to describe semantic universals（共性，一般概念） that may characterize all languages. For example, [Male], [Female], [Adult], [Non-adult], [Human], [Bovine], [Ovine] and [Porcine] are the semantic features.
b) componential analysis（成分分析）
All languages, for example, distinguish nouns that categorize abstract from concrete experience; animate from inanimate referents; human from non-human; male from female. The word ?man‘ has the following semantic features:〔Human〕, 〔Adult〕, 〔Male〕and〔Concrete〕This kind of analysis is known as componential analysis.
CHAPTER 6
Ⅰ、Polysemy
1、（1）、Polysemy has been defined as“ A term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings.” 109页第 2---3行 (2)、Polysemy is also an essential feature of a language’s economy and efficiency. Just imagine what a heavy burden it would be on the learner's memory if it were not possible for one word to possess several senses . One would be obliged to learn a tremendous number of separate words for every subject one might wish to talk about. 110页第 14---17行
2、Radiation is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like ray. 111页 第17---19行
3、Concatenation,“ linking together” , is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts , like the links of a chain, until there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning. 113页 11----14行 4、答案在261页
Ⅱ、Homonymy 1、115页倒数第2-3行Perfect homonyms : Words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning are called perfect homonyms. 2、116页第8-9行Homophones:Words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning are called homophones.
116页第12-13行Homographs : Words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning are called homographs. 3、The sources of homonyms are as follows:
①Phonetic
convergence:Converging sound developmengt is the most
common cause of homonymy,or to be more exact ,of homophones.Under the influence of phonetic changes, two or more words which once were different in sound forms take on the same pronunciation the spoken