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to starve： to die ; to die of hunger
to stink : in Old English it could just as appropriately be used to describe a delightful（可爱的，可喜的；令人愉快的）odour（气味）as a disagreeable one . and in Middle English it came to be applied only to offensive（冒犯的，无礼的） sensations（感觉） .
pipe : to a musician ,it is a simple tubelike（管状的） musical instrument , played by blowing , but it suggests other and quite different meanings to a tobacco（烟草） smoker and to an architect（建筑师） .
6、What is extension of meaning ? How have the following words become extended in meaning ? 见P178-180（178倒数第二段第一句+179中间的表格+180第二段）
Plant, bird, holiday, salary, picture, thing, to arrive
Extension of meaning, the opposite of restriction, means the widening of a word‘s sense until it covers much more than what it originally conveyed .
Original meaning meaning after extension Plant： from L plantar , a generic term（通用术语）
for
a sprout（芽；萌芽；苗芽）; the whole botanical （植物
学的）species .
Bird：from OE bird ,a young bird; a general term for feathered
creatures with two legs and two wings , usu. （通常）able to fly .
Holiday：holy day , a day of religious day of festivity or recreation ,
when
significance; no work is done .
Salary：a sum of money given to Roman fixed payment made by employer
soldiers to enable them to buy at regular intervals , usu . monthly salt ; or quarterly , to
person doing other
than manual（手工的；体力的）or mechanical work .
Picture：a painting ; painting , drawing ,sketch , of sth. , esp. as a
work of art; photographs and movies are also included.
Thing：a council , court , it may be used as a substitute for
nearly
or controversy ; any noun depending on the
context in which it is used .
to arrive：come the shore ; to reach a place ,esp. the end of a
journey , by any means of
locomotion（运动；移动；旅行）.
7. The two main forms of degeneration are:
① The falling of word meaning into disrepute, for one reason or another.
② The gradual extension to so many senses that any particular meaning which a word may have had is completely lost. Example：Page 181 (the second paragraph)
Silly ( blessed and happy→innocent→simple or simple
minded→foolish)
8.
原义 升格后的词义
Pioneer 拓荒者 先驱者 Minister 侍从；服务员 部长 Marshal 马夫 元帅 Job 琐碎的家务活 体面的工作 Black 黑色的 邪恶的
英文意思参照书本184页表格
9. How have metaphor(隐喻) and metonymy(换喻，转喻) played an important part in semantic(语义的) development and semantic
change? (参考P185---188)
Semantic development and semantic change may result from the figurative use of the language. Since this is a very board area of inquiry, I shall confine myself to semantic changes related to metaphor and metonymy only. Metaphor and metonymy are important factor in semantic change or development. Metaphor is a process which often results in semantic change or figurative extension of meaning. A semantic change has taken place when a word is used metaphorically: the word now means something other than its literal meaning. Metonymy does not reveal any new relations but arises between words already related to each other in different ways. Its use must be confirmed by the members of a given speech community.
10. original meaning → present meaning
style: denoting a stylus, also a literary composition, an official title, or a characteristic manner of literary expression→ 1. design or make in a particular form
2. designate with a particular name, description, or title
3. a way of painting, writing, composing, building, etc., characteristic of a particular period, place, person, or movement 4. a way of using language 5. a manner of doing something 6 .a particular design of clothing
7. a way of arranging the hair8 a way of arranging the hair Clue: a ball of thread→
a fact or idea that serves as a guide or aid in a task or problem Cunning :( possessing) erudition or skill →
1. having or showing skill in achieving one's ends by deceit or evasion 2. ingenious
Horrible: tremble, shudder →
1. causing or likely to cause horror; shocking 2. (informal) very unpleasant
Chapter Ⅹ
1. What are the characteristics of English idioms(习语)？
The important characteristics of English idioms are that they are semantically metaphoric( 比喻性的) or opaque(不透明的)，and structurally fixed or invariable. Most of these idiomatic expressions are phrases of two or more words which function as a unit of meaning, and must be learned as a whole.
2. What is the source of English idioms(习语)？
⑴Many idiomatic expressions come from the everyday life of the English people: ①nautical and military life ②business life ③student life ④food and cooking⑤sports and card-playing ⑵The Bible is one of the chief sources from which idiomatic expressions have sprung(根源) ⑶Shakespeare ‘ play ⑷Many idioms from fables, myths or legends. （详情参考书本P192所有内容）
3. What are verb phrase idioms? What are their peculiar(独有的) feature?
Verb phrase idioms are combinations of a verb and an adverb, or a verb and a
preposition, or a verb with adverb and p reposition.
Most of the verb phrase idioms are nearly synonymous with loan words of Roman origin. In contemporary English, verb phrase idioms are preferred to corresponding single verbs of Romanic origin. Besides, verb phrase idioms can form noun compounds. Phrase verbs are usually more lively and expressive than single verbs. （详情参考书本P194~P195所有内容）
4. What are the points that we must pay attention to in order to use idiomatic expressions appropriately?
I think that non-native students should pay attention to the syntactic(句法的，语法的，合成的), structural and stylistic（风格的） analysis of idioms so that the non-native student can learn to use them appropriately. （详情参考书本P201最后一段）