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12. The plural morpheme ?s? is realized by /s/ after the sounds /t, p, k/ and by /z/ after /d, b, g, l/ 13. In the Eastern Set, Albanian and Armenian are each the only modern language respectively. 名词解释：
1. morpheme（语素）: the minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.
2. allomorphs（语素变体）: some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.
3. free morphemes（自由语素）: Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.
4. bound morphemes（黏着语素）: morphemes which can not occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words.
5. bound root（黏着词根）: a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. It’s a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.
6. affixes（词缀）: Affixes are forms that are attached to words or words elements to modify meaning or function.
7. inflectional affixes（曲折词缀）: Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. 8. derivational affixes（派生词缀）: As the term indicates, derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to creat new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.
9. root（词根）: A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. It is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.
10. stem（词干）: A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. 论述问答题：
1. What are the differences between root and stem?
答：① A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. The root whether free or bound generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.
② A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in “iron”or of two root morphemes as in a compound like “handcuff”. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in “mouthful”. Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind cab be added.
2. Analyze the morphological structure of the following words in terms of free morpheme and bound morpheme, then explain the differences between the two kinds of morphemes. Unhappily Idealistic
答:①Each of two words consists of three morphemes:unhappily(un+happy+ly), idealistic(ideal+ist+ic).
②“happy” and “ideal” are free morphemes; un-, -ly, -ist and –ic are bound morphemes. ③free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Bound morphemes must be bound to other morphemes to form words.
3. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out types of the morphemes. recollection, nationalist, unearthly. 答：recollection, nationalist, unearthly
1) Each of the three words consists of three morphemes:recollection(re+collect+ion), nationalist(nation+al+ist), unearthly(un+earth+ly).
2) Of the nine morphemes, only “collect” “nation” and “earth” are free morphemes as they can exist by themselves.
3) All the rest are bound morphemes as none of them can stand alone as words.
Chapter 4 Word Formation II
重点知识锦集：
1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.
2. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixes falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.（前缀和后缀） 3. Affixation is also known as derivation.
4. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. 5. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.
6. We shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc.
7. Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.（连写的，加连字符号的，不连写的）
8. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are considerably complex. 9. Conversion is also known as functional shift.（功能转换）
10. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.
11. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs. 12. Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion,（完全转换） others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion.（部分转换） 13. Blending（拼缀法） is a very productive process and many coinages resulting from blending have become well-established.
14. As far as the structure is concerned, blends fall into four major groups: head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tail.
15. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns.
16. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines.
17. There are four common types of clipping: front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.
18. Both intialisms and acronyms have become very popular since the Second World War and thus extremely productive.
19. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs.
20. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not gained public acceptance.
21. Open compounds look like free phrases as the elements forming each word are written separately.
22. As a rule, the stress of compounds falls on the first element.
23. A compound functions as a single grammatical unit, so the internal structure can not be changed.
24. Conversion（转换法） refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class. 25. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns.
名词解释：
1. affixation（词缀法）: Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.
2. prefixation（前缀法）: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.
3. suffixation（后缀法）: Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. 4. compounding（合成法）: Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds. 5. conversion（转换法）: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.
6. blending（拼缀法）: Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words.
7. clipping（截短法）: Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping.
8. acronymy（首字母拼音法）: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.
9. initialisms（首字母缩略词）: Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. 10. acronyms（首字母拼音词）: Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.
11. back-formation（逆生法）: Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. 论述问答题：
1. In what aspects do compounds differ from free phrases?
答：Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:
1). Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.
2). Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.
3). Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective. 2. What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?
答：Prefixes do not usually change the word-class of the stem but only modify lts meaning.
Although present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, they make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary. It might be the best way to classify prefixes by their non-class-changing feature.
3. In what way are compound verbs generally formed? Give examples to illustrate your point. 答：Compound verbs are created either through conversion or back-formation. This could be illustrated by two words, nickname and chain-smoker. Nickname, which is originally a noun, can be used as a verb through conversion. Chain-smoker, which is originally a noun, can turn into a verb through back-formation.
4. What is the difference between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples. 答：When converted to nouns, not all adjectives can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. When a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of a noun, it can take an indefinite article or-(e)s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, adjective “white”can be fully converted to a noun “white”, which can take indefinite article: a white. When a noun partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with the definite article, and they retain some of the adjective features. For example, the poor, the rich. 5. Both back-formation（逆生法） and back-clipping（截后留前） are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. How do you account for the coexistence of the two? Can you explain the difference?
答：Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. It’s considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, “loafer”may be assumed to derive from the verb “loaf”’on the analogy of known derivatives, such as “swimmer” from “swim” or “driver” from “drive”. By removing the supposed suffixes –er from “loafer”, a verb “loaf”?is coined. Majority of back-formed words are verbs. Back-clipping is different. The deletion occurs at the end of the word(usually a noun). Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class. In different context, one could be used in other?s place. 6. After he comes back, he oiled machine.
In above sentence, which word is the converted word? Explain the type of the conversion and the effect of the conversion.
答：In this sentence, the word “oil”is the converted word. It is converted from a noun to a verb. When it was used as a noun, the meaning of it is that “ 油”. But in this sentence, it was used as a verb, the meaning is “给?加油”; As is often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.
Chapter 5 Word Meaning
重点知识锦集：
1. Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between Language and the world.
2. The reference of a word to a thing outside the Language is arbitrary and conventional.（任意的和依照惯例的）
3. Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to
something specific.
4. Every word that has meaning has sense(not every word has reference).
5. Different lexical items, which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning.（语法意义）
6. Functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning.
7. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.（概念意义和关联意义）
8. Associative meaning（关联意义） comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective, collocative.
9. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or pejorative.（褒义词和贬义词）
10. To a large extent the affective meaning of the word depends on the context where the word is used.
11. Motivation（理据） explains why a particular form has a particular meaning. 12. Unlike conceptual meaning, associative meaning is unstable and indeterminate.
13. By etymological motivation, we mean that the meaning of a particular word is related to its origin.
14. The relationship between the linguistic sign and a referent is conventional.
15. Content words have both meanings, and Lexical meaning（词汇意义） in particular. 16. The word “miniskirt”is morphologically motivated. 17. The word “laconic”is etymologically motivated.
18. In the phrase “the mouth of the river”, the word “mouth”is semantically motivated. 名词解释：
1. concept（概念）: Concept, which is beyond Language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It’s universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, Language and so on.
2. sense（语义）: Sense denotes the relationship inside the Language. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the Language.
3. motivation（理据）: Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.
4. onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）: In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang, miaow, ha ha and the like are onomatopoetically motivated words. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning.
5. morphological motivation（形态理据）: Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Quite often, if one knows the meaning of each morpheme, one can figure out the meaning of the word. For instance, “airmail” means to ?mail by air?.
6. semantic motivation（语义理据）: Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.
7. etymological motivation（词源学理据）: The meanings of many words often relate directly