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26. The advantage of classifying idioms according to grammatical functions is to use idioms correctly and appropriately.
27. The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is used in different meanings include affective meaning. 名词解释：
1. metonymy（换喻）: This refers to idioms in which the name of one thing is used for that of another associated with it. 2. dismembering（肢解）: It is what I mean by breaking up the idioms into pieces, an unusual case of use of idioms particularly in literature or popular press to achieve special effect.
3. English idioms（英语习语）: Strictly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idioms may include colloquialisms, catchphrases, slang expressions, proverbs, etc. they form an important part of the English vocabulary.
4. idioms nominal in nature（名词性习语）: Idioms of this class have a noun as the key word in each and function as a noun in sentences.
5. synecdoche（替代）: Synecdoche involves substituting part for the whole. 论述问答题：
1. What are the characteristics of Idioms? Try to explain it. 答：1). Semantic unity(语义的整体性)：being phrases or sentences, idioms each consists of mora than one word, but each is a semantic unity. Though the various words which make up the idom have their respective literal meanings, in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. 2). Structural stability(结构的稳定性): Unlike free phrases, the structure of an idiom is to a large extent unchangeable. First, the constituents of idioms can not be replaced. Secondly, the word order can not be inverted or changed. Thirdly, the constituents of an idiom can not be deleted or added to, not even an article. Finally, many idioms are grammatically unanalysable.
2. According to the criterion of grammatical functions, how many types are idioms can be classified into, and what are they? Try to explain them.
答：By the criterion of grammatical functions, idioms may be classified into five groups. 1). Idioms nominal in nature（名词性习语）: idioms of this class have a noun as the key word in each and function as a noun in sentences. 2). Idioms adjectival in nature（形容词性习语）: they function as an adjective in sentences, but the constituents are not necessarily adjectives.
3) Idioms verbal in nature（动词性习语）: this is the largest group of all. The structures of such idioms are quite complex and thus can be subdivided into phrasal verbs and other verbal phrases. 4) Idioms adverbial in nature（副词性习语）This class contains numerous prepositional phrases. 5) Sentence idioms（句式习语）as the term suggests, all idioms of this category are complete sentences. They are mainly proverbs and sayings.
3. What are the differences between phrasal verbs and verb phrases?
答：A phrasal verb is a verb phrase consisting of a verb plus a article such as “bring up”, “get down”, “come up with”. A verb phrase is any phrase functioning as a verb, for example “call it a day”, “make both ends meet” “look after”. Verb phrase include pfrasal verbs. 4. What are the points that we must pay attention to in order to use idiomantic expression appropriately?
答：In using English idioms exactly and rightly, we need to pay attention to the following
points:
1). Stylistic features of idioms. Idioms are created by people in their different work, thus acquiring a lot of stylistic features. They are colloquialisms, slangs and literary expressions. That is to say, idioms of different stylistic features are used on different occasions. You should not misuse or abuse them.
2). Rhetorical features of idioms. We use idioms to achieve vividness of description, for idioms can create alliteration, rhyme, reiteration, repetition and juxtaposition of antonyms. Besides, there are also simile, metaphor, metonym, synecdoche, personification and euphemism in idioms.
5. Pick out the idioms used in the following sentences and explain its origin and the effect of using this form.
“well, it?s the old story of the stitch in time,” he said. 答：The idiom: “the stitch in time”. Its origin: “a stitch in time saves nine”. The effect of using this form:
1). Proverbs are concise, forcible and thought-provoking. 2). Using an old saying is more persuasive. 3). The short form saves time, more colloquial. 4). It indicates intimancy or close relationship.
Chapter 10 English Dictionaries
重点知识锦集：
1. Monolingual(单语的)dictionaries are written in one language.
2. Linguistic dictionaries（语言词典） aim at defining words and explaining their usage in the language.
3. Encyclopedic dictionaries can be further divided into encyclopedia（百科全书） and encyclopedic dictionaries（百科词典）.
4. The best-known unabridged dictionary is Webster?s Third New International Dictionary. 5. Some of the most known American desk dictionaries are Webster?s New World Dictionary. 6. The advantages of pocket dictionaries（袖珍词典） are being inexpensive and easy to carry. 7. Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English belongs to the Specialized dictionaries.
8. For beginners, and elementary and lower-intermediate learners, a bilingual dictionary(双语词典)is essential.
9. For the post intermediate and advanced learners, it?s advisable to use more of a monolingual one.
10. Specialized dictionaries(专门词典) are particularly good for language teachers and researchers.
11. New dictionaries keep appearing in order to keep up with the time.
12. A latest dictionary is supposed to include the latest changes and developments in terms of new words and new meanings.
14. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English（朗文当代英语词典）was noted for its wide
coverage of new words, new meanings and new new usages, for its simple and clear definitions. 15. The unique features of CCELD（科林斯英语词典） include definition, extra colum, usage examples.
16. Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English is a specialized dictionary.
17.The headword or entries are defined in the same language in a monolingual dictionary. 18. LDCE is distinctive for its clear grammar codes，usage notes，language notes. 19. Both LDCE and CCELD are general dictionaries and monolingual dictionary. 名词解释：
1. monolingual dictionaries（单语词典）: Monolingual dictionaries are written in one language, that is the headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same Language.
2. bilingual dictionaries（双语词典）: Bilingual dictionaries involve two Languages. The main entries are generally defined or explained in the same language with translation . 3. linguistic dictionaries（语言词典）: Linguistic dictionaries aim at defining words and explaining their usages and in the language. They usually cover such areas as spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical function, usage and etymology, etc. these dictionaries can be monolingual and bilingual.
4. encyclopedic dictionaries（百科词典）: Encyclopedic dictionaries have the characteristics of both linguistic dictionaries and encyclopedia. In such dictionaries one can find the general information as in a linguistic dictionary and limited encyclopedic information as well.
5. unabridged dictionaries（大型词典）: As the name indicates, an unabridged dictionary is an unshortened one. Theoretically, it is a complete record of all the words in use. Such a dictionary is the most complete description of words available to us.
6. desk dictionaries（案头词典）: Desk dictionaries are medium-sized ones containing words ranging from 50,000 to 150,000.
7. pocket dictionaries（袖珍词典）: These dictionaries have about 50,000 entries or fewer. Such a dictionary provides only the spelling and pronunciation of each word with a few most common meanings.
8. specialized dictionaries（专用词典）: Special dictionaries concentrate on a particular area of language or konwledge. These dictionaries may not be very large in size, yet each contains much more detailed information on the subject than you can find in a general unabridged one. 9. General dictionaries（普通词典）：general dictionaries are meant for ordinary users for spelling, pronunciation, meaning and grammer.
10. dictionary（词典）: Dictionary is a book which presents in an alphabetical order the words of English with information as to their spelling, pronunciation, meaning, usage, rules of grammar, and in some, their etymology. 论述问答题：
1. What is the general difference between British and American Dictionaries?
答：The general difference between British and American dictionaries are as follows:
American dictionaries contain more encyclopedic information in the main body than the British, whereas the British Dictionaries, especially learner?s dictionaries, include more grammatical information. Generally speaking, one may find British usages in an American dictionary. But as for American usages, users are advised to consult American dictionaries because chances are that such words are excluded from a general British one. 2. What is the content of the Dictionary? Illustrate it.
答：1). Spelling. It gives the accepted spelling for all words.
2). Pronunciation. Just like spelling, British and American Dictionaries present their respective standard pronunciation.
3). Definition. The main body of a dictionary is its definitions of words. 4). Usage. Most desk dictionaries provide usage information.
5). Grammar. Apart from the usual coverage of word classes and inflections, dictionaries include various amounts of grammar information. 6). Usage notes and language notes.
7). Etymological information. Most American desk dictionaries and some British ones give information concerning the origins of words. 8). Supplementary matter.
3. What are the features for which A Chinese-English Dictionary（英汉词典） was noted? Try to explain it.
答：1). It included catchphrases, sayings and proverbs. 2). The new edition revised some old entries.
3). The new edition keeps the previous alphabetical order of entries, which makes the dictionary easy to use.
4). The dictionary boasts of the quality of the English equivalents it provides for its Chinese items.
4. What are the unique features of CCELD（科林斯英语词典）?
答：1). Definition（定义）, the definitions in this dictionary are all in full sentences.
2). Extra column（额外专栏）, the use of extra column to deal with grammar information.
3). Usage examples（用法举例）, in this dictionary, almost every meaning of a word has an example to show its meaning and usage, most in sentence form.
5. What factors should be taken into consideration in choosing a dictionary?
答：Generally speaking, we should consider whether the dictionary is monolingual or bilingual, general or specialized, British or American, early edition or late edition as well as their content in accordance with our own needs.
6. What are the advantages of using monolingual dictionary（单语词典）?
答：1). The use of a monolingual dictionary can increase exposure of language and avoid misunderstanding by translation.
2). Users think in English, understand meanings in terms of other English words, thus enlarging vocabulary and learn the precise meanings of words and usages through definition and examples. 3). The effective use of a monolingual dictionary will give learners a sense of satisfaction and self-sufficiency and greater confidence in their ability to solve language problems.